The Timescales of Embedded Star Formation as Observed in STARFORGE
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| Format: | Preprint |
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2025
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| author | Wainer, Tobin M. Dalcanton, Julianne J. Grudić, Michael Y. Offner, Stella S. R. Smercina, Adam Williams, Benjamin F. Johnson, L. Clifton Peltonen, J. Koch, Eric W. Neralwar, Kartik R. |
| author_facet | Wainer, Tobin M. Dalcanton, Julianne J. Grudić, Michael Y. Offner, Stella S. R. Smercina, Adam Williams, Benjamin F. Johnson, L. Clifton Peltonen, J. Koch, Eric W. Neralwar, Kartik R. |
| contents | Star formation occurs within dusty molecular clouds that are then disrupted by stellar feedback. However, the timing and physical mechanisms that govern the transition from deeply embedded to exposed stars remain uncertain. Using the STARFORGE simulations, we analyze the evolution of ``embeddedness'', identifying what drives emergence. We find the transition from embedded to exposed is fast for individual stars, within 1.3 Myr after the star reaches its maximum mass. This rapid transition is dominated by massive stars, which accrete while remaining highly obscured until their feedback eventually balances, then overcomes, the local accretion. For these massive stars, their maximum mass is reached simultaneously with their emergence. Once these stars are revealed, their localized, pre-supernova feedback then impacts the cloud, driving gas clearance. Because massive stars dominate the luminosity, their fast, local evolution dominates the light emergence from the dust. We calculate the dependence of these processes on the mass of the cloud and find that emergence always depends on when massive stars form, which scales with the cloud's free-fall time. We also measure the evolution of dust and H$α$ luminosities, where for $\sim$2 Myr, these tracers outshine the emerging stellar continuum, reaching their peak when gas and dust remain tightly coupled to the massive stars. These results closely resemble observationally observed lifetimes, tying the observable dust and line emission directly to the same localized processes that drive stellar emergence, evidence that our simulated de-embedding physics is representative of real star-forming regions. Thus, because the initial embedding of the most luminous stars is highly local, the emergence of stars is a faster, earlier, more local event than the overall disruption of the cloud by gas expulsion. |
| format | Preprint |
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arxiv_https___arxiv_org_abs_2509_18322 |
| institution | arXiv |
| publishDate | 2025 |
| record_format | arxiv |
| spellingShingle | The Timescales of Embedded Star Formation as Observed in STARFORGE Wainer, Tobin M. Dalcanton, Julianne J. Grudić, Michael Y. Offner, Stella S. R. Smercina, Adam Williams, Benjamin F. Johnson, L. Clifton Peltonen, J. Koch, Eric W. Neralwar, Kartik R. Solar and Stellar Astrophysics Astrophysics of Galaxies Star formation occurs within dusty molecular clouds that are then disrupted by stellar feedback. However, the timing and physical mechanisms that govern the transition from deeply embedded to exposed stars remain uncertain. Using the STARFORGE simulations, we analyze the evolution of ``embeddedness'', identifying what drives emergence. We find the transition from embedded to exposed is fast for individual stars, within 1.3 Myr after the star reaches its maximum mass. This rapid transition is dominated by massive stars, which accrete while remaining highly obscured until their feedback eventually balances, then overcomes, the local accretion. For these massive stars, their maximum mass is reached simultaneously with their emergence. Once these stars are revealed, their localized, pre-supernova feedback then impacts the cloud, driving gas clearance. Because massive stars dominate the luminosity, their fast, local evolution dominates the light emergence from the dust. We calculate the dependence of these processes on the mass of the cloud and find that emergence always depends on when massive stars form, which scales with the cloud's free-fall time. We also measure the evolution of dust and H$α$ luminosities, where for $\sim$2 Myr, these tracers outshine the emerging stellar continuum, reaching their peak when gas and dust remain tightly coupled to the massive stars. These results closely resemble observationally observed lifetimes, tying the observable dust and line emission directly to the same localized processes that drive stellar emergence, evidence that our simulated de-embedding physics is representative of real star-forming regions. Thus, because the initial embedding of the most luminous stars is highly local, the emergence of stars is a faster, earlier, more local event than the overall disruption of the cloud by gas expulsion. |
| title | The Timescales of Embedded Star Formation as Observed in STARFORGE |
| topic | Solar and Stellar Astrophysics Astrophysics of Galaxies |
| url | https://arxiv.org/abs/2509.18322 |