Menopause averted a midlife energetic crisis with help from older children and parents: A simulation study
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arXiv
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| Format: | Preprint |
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2026
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| _version_ | 1866914265421578240 |
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| author | Hagen, Edward H. |
| author_facet | Hagen, Edward H. |
| contents | The grandmother hypothesis is the most influential account of the evolution of menopause in humans, but other theories warrant investigation. Here I use simulations to investigate two theories that ground the evolution of menopause in biparental care. Kaplan et al. (2010) proposed a "two-sex" learning and skill-based account, termed the Embodied Capital Model (ECM), in which the high energetic burden of caring for multiple, slow-developing offspring was met with biparental investment. Menopause evolved because the physiological costs of pregnancy and childbirth increased with age yet productivity also increased with age, and the benefits of transferring resources to adult children and their offspring eventually outweigh the benefits of continued reproduction. Kuhle (2007) proposed the "father absent" hypothesis in which the higher mortality rate of husbands would often have left wives without the resources to raise young children, selecting for early reproductive cessation in monogamous couples. Simulations of hunter-gatherer energy consumption and production across the lifespan, taking account of age- and sex-specific survivorship, interbirth intervals, and varying rates of strength and foraging skill acquisition typical of contemporary foragers, reveal a pronounced midlife energy deficit that could be averted by ceasing reproduction midlife and receiving energy transfers from both younger couples (e.g., brideservice) and from older parents (the grandmother hypothesis). Menopause emerges as an integral and strictly necessary component of the unique human pattern of relatively short interbirth intervals and a long period of juvenile dependency, supporting and extending the ECM. |
| format | Preprint |
| id |
arxiv_https___arxiv_org_abs_2601_13442 |
| institution | arXiv |
| publishDate | 2026 |
| record_format | arxiv |
| spellingShingle | Menopause averted a midlife energetic crisis with help from older children and parents: A simulation study Hagen, Edward H. Populations and Evolution The grandmother hypothesis is the most influential account of the evolution of menopause in humans, but other theories warrant investigation. Here I use simulations to investigate two theories that ground the evolution of menopause in biparental care. Kaplan et al. (2010) proposed a "two-sex" learning and skill-based account, termed the Embodied Capital Model (ECM), in which the high energetic burden of caring for multiple, slow-developing offspring was met with biparental investment. Menopause evolved because the physiological costs of pregnancy and childbirth increased with age yet productivity also increased with age, and the benefits of transferring resources to adult children and their offspring eventually outweigh the benefits of continued reproduction. Kuhle (2007) proposed the "father absent" hypothesis in which the higher mortality rate of husbands would often have left wives without the resources to raise young children, selecting for early reproductive cessation in monogamous couples. Simulations of hunter-gatherer energy consumption and production across the lifespan, taking account of age- and sex-specific survivorship, interbirth intervals, and varying rates of strength and foraging skill acquisition typical of contemporary foragers, reveal a pronounced midlife energy deficit that could be averted by ceasing reproduction midlife and receiving energy transfers from both younger couples (e.g., brideservice) and from older parents (the grandmother hypothesis). Menopause emerges as an integral and strictly necessary component of the unique human pattern of relatively short interbirth intervals and a long period of juvenile dependency, supporting and extending the ECM. |
| title | Menopause averted a midlife energetic crisis with help from older children and parents: A simulation study |
| topic | Populations and Evolution |
| url | https://arxiv.org/abs/2601.13442 |