Using observations of escaping H/He to constrain the atmospheric composition of sub-Neptunes
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| Format: | Preprint |
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2026
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| _version_ | 1866909996058411008 |
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| author | Rogers, James G. Owen, James E. Schreyer, Ethan Kirk, James |
| author_facet | Rogers, James G. Owen, James E. Schreyer, Ethan Kirk, James |
| contents | The internal composition of sub-Neptunes remains a prominent unresolved question in exoplanetary science. We present a technique to place constraints on envelope mean molecular weight that utilises observations of escaping hydrogen or helium exospheres. This method is based on a simple timescale argument, which states that sub-Neptunes require a sufficiently large hydrogen or helium reservoir to explain on-going escape at their observed rates. This then naturally leads to an upper limit on atmospheric mean molecular weight. We apply this technique to archetypal sub-Neptunes, namely GJ-436 b, TOI-776 b and TOI-776 c, which have all been observed to be losing significant hydrogen content as well as relatively featureless transit spectra when observed with JWST. Combining constraints from atmospheric escape and transit spectroscopy in the case of TOI-776 c allows us to tentatively rule out the high mean molecular weight scenario, pointing towards a low mean molecular weight atmosphere with high-altitude aerosols muting spectral features in the infra-red. Finally, we reframe our analysis to the hycean candidate K2-18 b, which has also been shown to host a tentative escaping hydrogen exosphere. If such a detection is robust, we infer a hydrogen-rich envelope mass fraction of $\log f_\text{env} = -1.67\pm0.78$, which is inconsistent with the hycean scenario at the $\sim 4σ$ level. This latter result requires further observational follow-up to confirm. |
| format | Preprint |
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arxiv_https___arxiv_org_abs_2601_14254 |
| institution | arXiv |
| publishDate | 2026 |
| record_format | arxiv |
| spellingShingle | Using observations of escaping H/He to constrain the atmospheric composition of sub-Neptunes Rogers, James G. Owen, James E. Schreyer, Ethan Kirk, James Earth and Planetary Astrophysics The internal composition of sub-Neptunes remains a prominent unresolved question in exoplanetary science. We present a technique to place constraints on envelope mean molecular weight that utilises observations of escaping hydrogen or helium exospheres. This method is based on a simple timescale argument, which states that sub-Neptunes require a sufficiently large hydrogen or helium reservoir to explain on-going escape at their observed rates. This then naturally leads to an upper limit on atmospheric mean molecular weight. We apply this technique to archetypal sub-Neptunes, namely GJ-436 b, TOI-776 b and TOI-776 c, which have all been observed to be losing significant hydrogen content as well as relatively featureless transit spectra when observed with JWST. Combining constraints from atmospheric escape and transit spectroscopy in the case of TOI-776 c allows us to tentatively rule out the high mean molecular weight scenario, pointing towards a low mean molecular weight atmosphere with high-altitude aerosols muting spectral features in the infra-red. Finally, we reframe our analysis to the hycean candidate K2-18 b, which has also been shown to host a tentative escaping hydrogen exosphere. If such a detection is robust, we infer a hydrogen-rich envelope mass fraction of $\log f_\text{env} = -1.67\pm0.78$, which is inconsistent with the hycean scenario at the $\sim 4σ$ level. This latter result requires further observational follow-up to confirm. |
| title | Using observations of escaping H/He to constrain the atmospheric composition of sub-Neptunes |
| topic | Earth and Planetary Astrophysics |
| url | https://arxiv.org/abs/2601.14254 |