Structurally Human, Semantically Biased: Detecting LLM-Generated References with Embeddings and GNNs
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2026
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| _version_ | 1866911404547637248 |
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| author | Mobini, Melika Holst, Vincent Tori, Floriano Algaba, Andres Ginis, Vincent |
| author_facet | Mobini, Melika Holst, Vincent Tori, Floriano Algaba, Andres Ginis, Vincent |
| contents | Large language models are increasingly used to curate bibliographies, raising the question: are their reference lists distinguishable from human ones? We build paired citation graphs, ground truth and GPT-4o-generated (from parametric knowledge), for 10,000 focal papers ($\approx$ 275k references) from SciSciNet, and added a field-matched random baseline that preserves out-degree and field distributions while breaking latent structure. We compare (i) structure-only node features (degree/closeness/eigenvector centrality, clustering, edge count) with (ii) 3072-D title/abstract embeddings, using an RF on graph-level aggregates and Graph Neural Networks with node features. Structure alone barely separates GPT from ground truth (RF accuracy $\approx$ 0.60) despite cleanly rejecting the random baseline ($\approx$ 0.89--0.92). By contrast, embeddings sharply increase separability: RF on aggregated embeddings reaches $\approx$ 0.83, and GNNs with embedding node features achieve 93\% test accuracy on GPT vs.\ ground truth. We show the robustness of our findings by replicating the pipeline with Claude Sonnet 4.5 and with multiple embedding models (OpenAI and SPECTER), with RF separability for ground truth vs.\ Claude $\approx 0.77$ and clean rejection of the random baseline. Thus, LLM bibliographies, generated purely from parametric knowledge, closely mimic human citation topology, but leave detectable semantic fingerprints; detection and debiasing should target content signals rather than global graph structure. |
| format | Preprint |
| id |
arxiv_https___arxiv_org_abs_2601_20704 |
| institution | arXiv |
| publishDate | 2026 |
| record_format | arxiv |
| spellingShingle | Structurally Human, Semantically Biased: Detecting LLM-Generated References with Embeddings and GNNs Mobini, Melika Holst, Vincent Tori, Floriano Algaba, Andres Ginis, Vincent Machine Learning Large language models are increasingly used to curate bibliographies, raising the question: are their reference lists distinguishable from human ones? We build paired citation graphs, ground truth and GPT-4o-generated (from parametric knowledge), for 10,000 focal papers ($\approx$ 275k references) from SciSciNet, and added a field-matched random baseline that preserves out-degree and field distributions while breaking latent structure. We compare (i) structure-only node features (degree/closeness/eigenvector centrality, clustering, edge count) with (ii) 3072-D title/abstract embeddings, using an RF on graph-level aggregates and Graph Neural Networks with node features. Structure alone barely separates GPT from ground truth (RF accuracy $\approx$ 0.60) despite cleanly rejecting the random baseline ($\approx$ 0.89--0.92). By contrast, embeddings sharply increase separability: RF on aggregated embeddings reaches $\approx$ 0.83, and GNNs with embedding node features achieve 93\% test accuracy on GPT vs.\ ground truth. We show the robustness of our findings by replicating the pipeline with Claude Sonnet 4.5 and with multiple embedding models (OpenAI and SPECTER), with RF separability for ground truth vs.\ Claude $\approx 0.77$ and clean rejection of the random baseline. Thus, LLM bibliographies, generated purely from parametric knowledge, closely mimic human citation topology, but leave detectable semantic fingerprints; detection and debiasing should target content signals rather than global graph structure. |
| title | Structurally Human, Semantically Biased: Detecting LLM-Generated References with Embeddings and GNNs |
| topic | Machine Learning |
| url | https://arxiv.org/abs/2601.20704 |