Label-efficient Training Updates for Malware Detection over Time
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arXiv
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| Format: | Preprint |
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2026
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| author | Minnei, Luca Manca, Cristian Piras, Giorgio Sotgiu, Angelo Pintor, Maura Ghiani, Daniele Maiorca, Davide Giacinto, Giorgio Biggio, Battista |
| author_facet | Minnei, Luca Manca, Cristian Piras, Giorgio Sotgiu, Angelo Pintor, Maura Ghiani, Daniele Maiorca, Davide Giacinto, Giorgio Biggio, Battista |
| contents | Machine Learning (ML)-based detectors are becoming essential to counter the proliferation of malware. However, common ML algorithms are not designed to cope with the dynamic nature of real-world settings, where both legitimate and malicious software evolve. This distribution drift causes models trained under static assumptions to degrade over time unless they are continuously updated. Regularly retraining these models, however, is expensive, since labeling new acquired data requires costly manual analysis by security experts. To reduce labeling costs and address distribution drift in malware detection, prior work explored active learning (AL) and semi-supervised learning (SSL) techniques. Yet, existing studies (i) are tightly coupled to specific detector architectures and restricted to a specific malware domain, resulting in non-uniform comparisons; and (ii) lack a consistent methodology for analyzing the distribution drift, despite the critical sensitivity of the malware domain to temporal changes. In this work, we bridge this gap by proposing a model-agnostic framework that evaluates an extensive set of AL and SSL techniques, isolated and combined, for Android and Windows malware detection. We show that these techniques, when combined, can reduce manual annotation costs by up to 90% across both domains while achieving comparable detection performance to full-labeling retraining. We also introduce a methodology for feature-level drift analysis that measures feature stability over time, showing its correlation with the detector performance. Overall, our study provides a detailed understanding of how AL and SSL behave under distribution drift and how they can be successfully combined, offering practical insights for the design of effective detectors over time. |
| format | Preprint |
| id |
arxiv_https___arxiv_org_abs_2603_28396 |
| institution | arXiv |
| publishDate | 2026 |
| record_format | arxiv |
| spellingShingle | Label-efficient Training Updates for Malware Detection over Time Minnei, Luca Manca, Cristian Piras, Giorgio Sotgiu, Angelo Pintor, Maura Ghiani, Daniele Maiorca, Davide Giacinto, Giorgio Biggio, Battista Machine Learning Cryptography and Security Machine Learning (ML)-based detectors are becoming essential to counter the proliferation of malware. However, common ML algorithms are not designed to cope with the dynamic nature of real-world settings, where both legitimate and malicious software evolve. This distribution drift causes models trained under static assumptions to degrade over time unless they are continuously updated. Regularly retraining these models, however, is expensive, since labeling new acquired data requires costly manual analysis by security experts. To reduce labeling costs and address distribution drift in malware detection, prior work explored active learning (AL) and semi-supervised learning (SSL) techniques. Yet, existing studies (i) are tightly coupled to specific detector architectures and restricted to a specific malware domain, resulting in non-uniform comparisons; and (ii) lack a consistent methodology for analyzing the distribution drift, despite the critical sensitivity of the malware domain to temporal changes. In this work, we bridge this gap by proposing a model-agnostic framework that evaluates an extensive set of AL and SSL techniques, isolated and combined, for Android and Windows malware detection. We show that these techniques, when combined, can reduce manual annotation costs by up to 90% across both domains while achieving comparable detection performance to full-labeling retraining. We also introduce a methodology for feature-level drift analysis that measures feature stability over time, showing its correlation with the detector performance. Overall, our study provides a detailed understanding of how AL and SSL behave under distribution drift and how they can be successfully combined, offering practical insights for the design of effective detectors over time. |
| title | Label-efficient Training Updates for Malware Detection over Time |
| topic | Machine Learning Cryptography and Security |
| url | https://arxiv.org/abs/2603.28396 |