The lifetime of 100,000 molecular clouds in the nearby Universe
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| Main Authors: | , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , |
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| Format: | Preprint |
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2026
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| author | Bazzi, Z. Kobayashi, M. I. N. Colombo, D. Bigiel, F. Leroy, A. K. Meidt, S. E. Klessen, R. S. Rosolowsky, E. Chown, R. Dale, D. A. Dlamini, S. Greve, M. Stuber, S. K. Boquien, M. Williams, T. G. Pan, H. -A. Querejeta, M. Ramambason, L. Romanelli, A. Saito, T. Romano, L. E. C. Jiménez-Donaire, M. J. Kim, H. Pathak, D. Koziol, H. Sutter, J. Lee, J. C. collaboration, the PHANGS |
| author_facet | Bazzi, Z. Kobayashi, M. I. N. Colombo, D. Bigiel, F. Leroy, A. K. Meidt, S. E. Klessen, R. S. Rosolowsky, E. Chown, R. Dale, D. A. Dlamini, S. Greve, M. Stuber, S. K. Boquien, M. Williams, T. G. Pan, H. -A. Querejeta, M. Ramambason, L. Romanelli, A. Saito, T. Romano, L. E. C. Jiménez-Donaire, M. J. Kim, H. Pathak, D. Koziol, H. Sutter, J. Lee, J. C. collaboration, the PHANGS |
| contents | Multiple mechanisms are proposed for the formation of giant molecular clouds (GMCs), from gravitational free-fall caused by self-gravity to stellar feedback-driven gas compression. Both the galactic environment and galaxy conditions could play an additional role in enhancing the formation via their gas surface density and star formation activity. In this paper, we make use of a catalog of 108,466 GMCs identified by F770W PHANGS--JWST imaging across 66 galaxies at a homogenized resolution of 30~pc. We measure the mass spectra in various galactic regions, whose power-law slopes vary from $-1.2$ to $-2.0$. We then estimate the formation time of each cloud using a model where GMCs form from multiple feedback compression, and find that clouds with masses $\leq 10^{5}\,M_{\odot}$ form, on average, in 20~Myr, with more massive clouds ($\sim 10^{6}$--$10^{7}\,M_{\odot}$) taking up to 100~Myr. We also find that cloud formation proceeds most rapidly in the central regions of galaxies, with formation timescales that are typically shorter by $\sim 5$--$10$~Myr compared to galactic disks. This effect is most pronounced in central molecular zones with enhanced star formation, highlighting the role of intense massive star formation, high molecular gas surface densities, and strong supersonic compressions in accelerating cloud formation. However, star formation is generally inefficient as the cloud lifetime is $\sim 1\,\%$ of the molecular depletion time. The formation time of clouds is $\sim 0.1$~dex longer than the free-fall time. This hints that magnetic fields, stellar feedback, or other mechanisms may prolong their formation instead of immediate free-fall collapse. This indicates a longevity of massive GMCs. The GMC ages also show only limited variation with galactocentric radius in both spiral and disk galaxies, suggesting that cloud formation proceeds similarly in these galaxy types. |
| format | Preprint |
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arxiv_https___arxiv_org_abs_2604_24759 |
| institution | arXiv |
| publishDate | 2026 |
| record_format | arxiv |
| spellingShingle | The lifetime of 100,000 molecular clouds in the nearby Universe Bazzi, Z. Kobayashi, M. I. N. Colombo, D. Bigiel, F. Leroy, A. K. Meidt, S. E. Klessen, R. S. Rosolowsky, E. Chown, R. Dale, D. A. Dlamini, S. Greve, M. Stuber, S. K. Boquien, M. Williams, T. G. Pan, H. -A. Querejeta, M. Ramambason, L. Romanelli, A. Saito, T. Romano, L. E. C. Jiménez-Donaire, M. J. Kim, H. Pathak, D. Koziol, H. Sutter, J. Lee, J. C. collaboration, the PHANGS Astrophysics of Galaxies Multiple mechanisms are proposed for the formation of giant molecular clouds (GMCs), from gravitational free-fall caused by self-gravity to stellar feedback-driven gas compression. Both the galactic environment and galaxy conditions could play an additional role in enhancing the formation via their gas surface density and star formation activity. In this paper, we make use of a catalog of 108,466 GMCs identified by F770W PHANGS--JWST imaging across 66 galaxies at a homogenized resolution of 30~pc. We measure the mass spectra in various galactic regions, whose power-law slopes vary from $-1.2$ to $-2.0$. We then estimate the formation time of each cloud using a model where GMCs form from multiple feedback compression, and find that clouds with masses $\leq 10^{5}\,M_{\odot}$ form, on average, in 20~Myr, with more massive clouds ($\sim 10^{6}$--$10^{7}\,M_{\odot}$) taking up to 100~Myr. We also find that cloud formation proceeds most rapidly in the central regions of galaxies, with formation timescales that are typically shorter by $\sim 5$--$10$~Myr compared to galactic disks. This effect is most pronounced in central molecular zones with enhanced star formation, highlighting the role of intense massive star formation, high molecular gas surface densities, and strong supersonic compressions in accelerating cloud formation. However, star formation is generally inefficient as the cloud lifetime is $\sim 1\,\%$ of the molecular depletion time. The formation time of clouds is $\sim 0.1$~dex longer than the free-fall time. This hints that magnetic fields, stellar feedback, or other mechanisms may prolong their formation instead of immediate free-fall collapse. This indicates a longevity of massive GMCs. The GMC ages also show only limited variation with galactocentric radius in both spiral and disk galaxies, suggesting that cloud formation proceeds similarly in these galaxy types. |
| title | The lifetime of 100,000 molecular clouds in the nearby Universe |
| topic | Astrophysics of Galaxies |
| url | https://arxiv.org/abs/2604.24759 |