Impact of Clouds on the Atmosphere-Mantle Interface of Sub-Neptunes
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arXiv
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| Auteurs principaux: | , , , , , , |
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| Format: | Preprint |
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2026
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| author | Mukherjee, Sagnick Nixon, Matthew C. Welbanks, Luis Mang, James Wogan, Nicholas F. Batalha, Natasha E. Line, Michael R. |
| author_facet | Mukherjee, Sagnick Nixon, Matthew C. Welbanks, Luis Mang, James Wogan, Nicholas F. Batalha, Natasha E. Line, Michael R. |
| contents | Sub-Neptunes are among the most common type of close-in planets found in our galaxy, yet their bulk composition remains largely uncertain; H-rich envelopes overlaying rocky cores, volatile-rich planets, and carbon-rich interiors all remain viable configurations for members of this population. Atmospheric characterization has been proposed as a means of distinguishing between these scenarios, but growing evidence suggests that sub-Neptunes may host molten atmosphere-mantle interfaces which could alter the composition of their atmosphere. We use the PICASO 1D climate model, coupled to interior-structure and magma-atmosphere chemistry frameworks to quantify how clouds alter the atmospheric and interior structure of sub-Neptunes. For temperate sub-Neptunes like TOI-270 d, we find that clouds can lead to $\ge{1000}$ K heating at depth (${\sim}10^{4}$ bar) and $\sim{600}$ K cooling at shallow pressures ($\sim$1 bar). This heating is very sensitive to the cloud sedimentation efficiency and, to a lesser extent, to metallicity. Most sub-Neptunes in our sample should have a molten atmosphere-mantle interface, except TOI-1231 b and GJ 1214 b. For these two planets, cloudy models have a molten interface whereas clear models can allow a solid boundary. Clouds can heat the atmosphere-mantle interfaces by a temperature difference between $\sim{1400}-2600$ K for most sub-Neptunes in our sample. Such cloud-driven heating can substantially change the composition of the interface with abundances of O$_2$, SiH$_4$, and SiO showing a $\ge{36}$\% increase between cloudy and clear models of TOI-270 d. We discuss the implications of our results for the thermal evolution and measurements of intrinsic heat flux for this population. |
| format | Preprint |
| id |
arxiv_https___arxiv_org_abs_2605_27353 |
| institution | arXiv |
| publishDate | 2026 |
| record_format | arxiv |
| spellingShingle | Impact of Clouds on the Atmosphere-Mantle Interface of Sub-Neptunes Mukherjee, Sagnick Nixon, Matthew C. Welbanks, Luis Mang, James Wogan, Nicholas F. Batalha, Natasha E. Line, Michael R. Earth and Planetary Astrophysics Sub-Neptunes are among the most common type of close-in planets found in our galaxy, yet their bulk composition remains largely uncertain; H-rich envelopes overlaying rocky cores, volatile-rich planets, and carbon-rich interiors all remain viable configurations for members of this population. Atmospheric characterization has been proposed as a means of distinguishing between these scenarios, but growing evidence suggests that sub-Neptunes may host molten atmosphere-mantle interfaces which could alter the composition of their atmosphere. We use the PICASO 1D climate model, coupled to interior-structure and magma-atmosphere chemistry frameworks to quantify how clouds alter the atmospheric and interior structure of sub-Neptunes. For temperate sub-Neptunes like TOI-270 d, we find that clouds can lead to $\ge{1000}$ K heating at depth (${\sim}10^{4}$ bar) and $\sim{600}$ K cooling at shallow pressures ($\sim$1 bar). This heating is very sensitive to the cloud sedimentation efficiency and, to a lesser extent, to metallicity. Most sub-Neptunes in our sample should have a molten atmosphere-mantle interface, except TOI-1231 b and GJ 1214 b. For these two planets, cloudy models have a molten interface whereas clear models can allow a solid boundary. Clouds can heat the atmosphere-mantle interfaces by a temperature difference between $\sim{1400}-2600$ K for most sub-Neptunes in our sample. Such cloud-driven heating can substantially change the composition of the interface with abundances of O$_2$, SiH$_4$, and SiO showing a $\ge{36}$\% increase between cloudy and clear models of TOI-270 d. We discuss the implications of our results for the thermal evolution and measurements of intrinsic heat flux for this population. |
| title | Impact of Clouds on the Atmosphere-Mantle Interface of Sub-Neptunes |
| topic | Earth and Planetary Astrophysics |
| url | https://arxiv.org/abs/2605.27353 |