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Autori principali:	Alessandro Bani, Mohsin Muhyuddin, Piercarlo Mustarelli, Veronica Termopoli, Rosanna Viscardi, Carlo Santoro
Natura:	Artículo Open Access
Pubblicazione:	Wiley 2026
Soggetti:	ChemSusChem
Accesso online:	https://chemistry-europe.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/cssc.70727
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author	Alessandro Bani Mohsin Muhyuddin Piercarlo Mustarelli Veronica Termopoli Rosanna Viscardi Carlo Santoro
author_facet	Alessandro Bani Mohsin Muhyuddin Piercarlo Mustarelli Veronica Termopoli Rosanna Viscardi Carlo Santoro Alessandro Bani Mohsin Muhyuddin Piercarlo Mustarelli Veronica Termopoli Rosanna Viscardi Carlo Santoro
collection	Wiley Open Access
contents	The Last Frontiers and Challenges in Urea Electrochemical Production Using Carbon Dioxide and Nitrate Alessandro Bani Mohsin Muhyuddin Piercarlo Mustarelli Veronica Termopoli Rosanna Viscardi Carlo Santoro ChemSusChem To reach complete decarbonization by 2050, much effort must be devoted to the electrification of hard‐to‐abate sectors and the substitution of fossil fuels with renewable sources. Currently, one of the most polluting sectors is the ammonia production through the Haber–Bosch process which is energy‐intensive. Moreover, the hydrogen needs to produce ammonia derived from steam reforming of methane gas and the water shift reaction, in turn consuming fossil fuels and emitting more than 2% of the CO 2 globally. Ammonia is the building block to produce urea which is the most used nitrogen‐containing fertilizer. In the past few years, urea electrosynthesis starting from CO 2 and nitrate has captured significantly the interest of the scientific community as it could become the cornerstone to achieve an intense and resilient urea production to reduce emissions and avoid usage of fossil fuels. Here, we discuss the status of the latest achievements in this field, focusing on the reaction mechanisms, different types of electrocatalysts and catalysis pursued, and the detection of urea and their intermediates using a plethora of diverse instruments and methods. This review points out the most critical aspects for research and highlights the potential routes for overcoming the main issues to be solved. 10.1002/cssc.70727 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
doi_str_mv	10.1002/cssc.70727
format	Artículo Open Access
id	wiley_oa_10_1002_cssc_70727
institution	Wiley Open Access
license_str_mv	http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
publishDate	2026
publisher	Wiley
record_format	wiley_oa
spellingShingle	The Last Frontiers and Challenges in Urea Electrochemical Production Using Carbon Dioxide and Nitrate Alessandro Bani Mohsin Muhyuddin Piercarlo Mustarelli Veronica Termopoli Rosanna Viscardi Carlo Santoro ChemSusChem The Last Frontiers and Challenges in Urea Electrochemical Production Using Carbon Dioxide and Nitrate Alessandro Bani Mohsin Muhyuddin Piercarlo Mustarelli Veronica Termopoli Rosanna Viscardi Carlo Santoro ChemSusChem To reach complete decarbonization by 2050, much effort must be devoted to the electrification of hard‐to‐abate sectors and the substitution of fossil fuels with renewable sources. Currently, one of the most polluting sectors is the ammonia production through the Haber–Bosch process which is energy‐intensive. Moreover, the hydrogen needs to produce ammonia derived from steam reforming of methane gas and the water shift reaction, in turn consuming fossil fuels and emitting more than 2% of the CO 2 globally. Ammonia is the building block to produce urea which is the most used nitrogen‐containing fertilizer. In the past few years, urea electrosynthesis starting from CO 2 and nitrate has captured significantly the interest of the scientific community as it could become the cornerstone to achieve an intense and resilient urea production to reduce emissions and avoid usage of fossil fuels. Here, we discuss the status of the latest achievements in this field, focusing on the reaction mechanisms, different types of electrocatalysts and catalysis pursued, and the detection of urea and their intermediates using a plethora of diverse instruments and methods. This review points out the most critical aspects for research and highlights the potential routes for overcoming the main issues to be solved. 10.1002/cssc.70727 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
title	The Last Frontiers and Challenges in Urea Electrochemical Production Using Carbon Dioxide and Nitrate
topic	ChemSusChem
url	https://chemistry-europe.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/cssc.70727

if (filemtime($filename) + $maxlifetime < time()) { unlink($filename); $count++; } } return $count; } /** * A function that is called internally when session data is to be saved. * * @param string $sessId The current session ID * @param string $data The session data to write * * @return bool */ protected function saveSession($sessId, $data): bool { $sessFile = $this->path . '/sess_' . $sessId; if ($handle = fopen($sessFile, 'w')) { $return = false; // Lock the file for exclusive access to avoid issues with multiple // processes writing session simultaneously: if (flock($handle, LOCK_EX)) { $return = fwrite($handle, $data); // Make sure that there's no trailing data by truncating the file to // the correct length: ftruncate($handle, strlen($data)); fflush($handle); flock($handle, LOCK_UN); } fclose($handle); if ($return !== false) { return true; } } // If we got this far, something went wrong with the file output... // It is tempting to throw an exception here, but this code is called // outside of the context of exception handling, so all we can do is // echo a message.

// Anecdotal testing Today and Yesterday seems to indicate destroy() // is called by the garbage collector and everything is good. // Something to keep in mind though. return 0; } /** * Write function that is called when session data is to be saved. * * @param string $sessId The current session ID * @param string $data The session data to write * * @return bool */ public function write($sessId, $data): bool { if ($this->writesDisabled) { return true; } return $this->saveSession($sessId, $data); } /** * A function that is called internally when session data is to be saved. * * @param string $sessId The current session ID * @param string $data The session data to write * * @return bool */ abstract protected function saveSession($sessId, $data): bool; }

* * @return void */ public function writeClose() { // The assumption is that we're using PHP's ext/session. // session_write_close() will actually overwrite $_SESSION with an // empty array on completion -- which leads to a mismatch between what // is in the storage object and $_SESSION. To get around this, we // temporarily reset $_SESSION to an array, and then re-link it to // the storage object. // // Additionally, while you _can_ write to $_SESSION following a // session_write_close() operation, no changes made to it will be // flushed to the session handler. As such, we now mark the storage // object isImmutable. $storage = $this->getStorage(); if (! $storage->isImmutable()) { $_SESSION = $storage->toArray(true); session_write_close(); $storage->fromArray($_SESSION); $storage->markImmutable(); } } /** * Attempt to set the session name * * If the session has already been started, or if the name provided fails * validation, an exception will be raised. * * @param string $name * @return SessionManager * @throws Exception\InvalidArgumentException */ public function setName($name) { if ($this->sessionExists()) { throw new Exception\InvalidArgumentException( 'Cannot set session name after a session has already started'

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Environment & details: