Phengodes Illiger 1807
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| author | Uchima-Taborda, Diego Vega-Badillo, Viridiana Zaragoza-Caballero, Santiago |
| author_facet | Uchima-Taborda, Diego Vega-Badillo, Viridiana Zaragoza-Caballero, Santiago |
| contents | <p><b><i>Phengodes</i> Illiger, 1807</b></p><p>Type species: <i>Phengodes plumosa</i> (Olivier, 1790)</p><p><b>Diagnosis:</b> Body elongated, head exposed, at most vertex partially covered; antennae with twelve antennomeres, antennomere XII filiform, antennomeres IV–XI with filiform flabellae; antennal tubercles strongly pronounced, separated from each other by a longitudinal depression, with a similar transversal depression posterior to the tubercles, vertex striated. Maxillary palpi four-segmented and labial palpi three-segmented, maxillary palpi long and thin, with the last palpomere similar in thickness and length to the penultimate, labial palpiger usually as long as first labial palpomere, galea expanded or not, mandibles falcate. Single tentorial fossa present. Pronotum ranging from wider than long to wide as long, with lateral expansions; posterior border discontinuous, mesepimeron concave. Tarsi without ventral combs and tarsal claws falcate without teeth. Abdominal segments without a visible luminous organ. Aedeagus with median lobe apically capitated and paramere bearing apical teeth.</p><p><b>Morphology</b></p><p>Body length 9–25.71; maximum body width at shoulder height 1.52–5.57. Individuals vary in color, ranging from yellow, orange, brown and black, usually species with stable coloration patterns (Fig 3–13).</p><p><b>Head:</b> Head wider than long, usually narrower than or equal to pronotum, vertex chagrined and partially covered by pronotum (Fig 14–20). Eye finely faceted, in lateral view higher than long, in dorsal and ventral views eye width narrower than interocular distance. Antennal tubercles prominent, separated by a longitudinal depression, never fused. A deep transversal depression separates the antennal tubercles from the vertex. Antennae with twelve antennomeres, usually surpassing the middle of elytra. Antennomeres IV–XI with a pair of flabellae at base, these flabellae filiform and elongated, ranging from three to nine times the antennomere length. Scape widened towards the middle, then slightly thinned towards the apex, antennomere II and III shorter than scape, III usually shorter than II. Antennomere XII is usually more than 2.5 times longer than XI.</p><p>Longitudinal sulcus on the frons absent or present, punctures from incipient to strongly marked, lumen usually wider than puncture diameter. Fronto-clypeal suture straight, convex, or biconcave. Clypeus divided or fused, apically notched or entire, medial clypeal sulcus present or absent; clypeal lobes (hemispheres) usually triangular or fusiform, with long setae especially in the external half. Mandibles projected forwards, falcated, without denticles, shorter or longer than head, always overlapping; can vary between dorsoventrally flattened to rounded, widen at base or middle, narrowing towards apex, setae and punctures present usually at base. Galea reduced and glabrous (most <i>Phengodes</i> (<i>Phengodes</i>), in text abbreviated as <i>P. (Ph.)</i>) (Fig 2A–B) to expanded with abundant setae at the apex (most <i>Phengodes</i> (<i>Phengodella</i>), in text abbreviated as <i>P. (Pla.)</i>.) (Fig 2C–D). Maxillary palpi four-segmented, with segment I shorter than the following ones or equal to II; palpomere IV elongated, usually with a truncated apex. Labial palpi three-segmented, palpifer reduced, equal to or less than palpomere I, I to III usually increasing in length. One tentorial fossa and one gular suture present (Figs 14–15 B, E, H; 16 B, E, I; 17–19 B, E, H; 20B).</p><p><b>Thorax:</b> Pronotum wider than or as wide as long, usually wider at base, integument smooth and lustrous to opaque, with superficial punctures, lumen wider than puncture diameter, especially on the disc. Lateral borders with expansions, ranging from narrow to wide, with the pronotal width 6 to 33 times the expansion width. Posterior border discontinuous, with a complete or incomplete carina along the discontinuity; posterior corners acute to right angled, with form rounded to sharp. Pronotal disc transverse, with or without a longitudinal sulcus, in some cases reduced to an isolated depression (Fig 14–15A, D, G; 16A, D, G, H; 17–19 A, D, G; 20A). Scutellum longer than wide, feebly bilobed to rounded. Mesepimeron concave (Fig 1B). Elytra dehiscent, usually constricted in the middle and expanded at apex, longer than pronotum, 1.5 to 3.75 times longer than wide; elytral disc surface chagrined, covered by setae and punctures, these denser near the apex. Hind wings venation with anal and W cell closed, radial cell, r3 and r4 could be present or not. Tibial apex with a crown of spines, tarsomeres I and II similar, III elongated, IV shorter than III and V, V longer than the preceding ones. Tarsal claws falciform, without teeth, finely covered with short hairs at the base, arolium and pulvilli present.</p><p><b>Abdomen:</b> Abdominal segments slightly expanded, covered with minute yellow hairs; posterior border of tergite VIII rounded (Fig 21A) or bilobed (Fig 21G), tergite IX covered by VIII, and X subsquared to rounded (Fig 21D, H, L); posterior border of ventrite VII concave, straight, or undulated, with (Fig 21E, 22 G, O) or without (Fig 21I, M; 22C, K) a medial projection; VIII concave to emarginate. This projection could be sunken below the level of the posterior border. Aedeagus with the flagellum sclerotized, symmetric to slightly asymmetric; median lobe capitated, 1 to 1.7 times longer than parameres; parameres longer than wide, each paramere apex with two to three pronounced teeth, internal border of the paramere with or without a sinuate internal border, flagellum 1.5 to 6 times the aedeagus length (Fig 26–28).</p><p><b>Females and immatures</b>: <i>Phengodes</i> females and immatures are poorly studied. Females are larviform and such as juveniles are soft bodied organisms without expanded segments. They are prognathous, with falcate, channeled mandibles used to inject digestive fluids into their prey. Each body segment bears a pair of bioluminescent organs, one on each side, the light produced has been reported as green (Zaragoza-Caballero & Pérez-Hernández 2014).</p><p><b>Biology:</b> <i>Phengodes</i> species are nocturnal, easily attracted to light and remain inactive during the day. Females can be found in holes within dry wood, underneath rocks, and other dark niches, including under cow dung in disturbed environments (Sánchez-Echeverría <i>et al.</i> 2014). <i>Phengodes</i> species are active predators, mainly of Diplopoda. Laboratory assays on <i>Floridobolus penneri</i> Causey, 1957 (Eisner <i>et al.</i> 1998), and field observations with <i>Rhysodesmus byersi</i> Loomis, 1966 (Sánchez-Echeverría <i>et al.</i> 2014), show that <i>Phengodes</i> inoculates digestive substances to liquefy the prey’s internal tissues, anesthetize it, and inhibit quinone release. Miller (1997) indicated that <i>Phengodes</i> predation on millipedes may be non-specific, but further studies are needed regarding feeding habits. Interbreeding phenomena were reported by Barber (1914), resulting in inviable offspring, which he maintained alive for up to 15 months in confinement.</p><p><b>Remarks:</b> <i>Phengodes</i> is similar to <i>Zarhipis</i> LeConte 1881, both can be differentiated because in <i>Phengodes</i> the antennal tubercles are conspicuous, with a deep depression posterior to them, whereas in <i>Zarhipis</i>, antennal tubercles are incipient and the depressions feebly pronounced or absent. Elytra in <i>Phengodes</i> are usually shorter, ranging from 2.17–3.9 times as long as wide, constricted in the middle, and highly dehiscent, while in <i>Zarhipis</i> the elytra are longer, generally 3.5-5.4 times as long as wide, not constricted in the middle, instead subparallel to slightly dehiscent. In <i>Zarhipis</i> the frons is generally anteriorly strongly declinate (near to vertical) to transversally concave, while in <i>Phengodes</i> it is weakly declinate, and never concave, at most with a longitudinal sulcus. Lastly, in <i>Zarhipis,</i> ventrite VII always presents a long medial projection, whereas this projection can be absent in <i>Phengodes</i>.</p><p>Another genus similar to <i>Phengodes</i> is <i>Pseudophengodes</i> Pic 1930. However, the latter presents bulbous and strongly developed antennal tubercles that are closely near between them, a transversal sulcus posterior to antennal tubercles that is not strongly developed, and a conspicuous bioluminescent organ in the abdomen, which is absent in <i>Phengodes</i>. As a final remark, the remnant genus of Phengodinae <i>Microphengodes</i> Wittmer, 1976 differs from <i>Phengodes</i> in the characteristics mentioned for <i>Pseudophengodes,</i> except for the bioluminescent organ, which is also absent in <i>Microphengodes</i>. <i>Microphengodes</i> are generally small individuals, ranging between 4 to 7 mm while <i>Phengodes</i> specimens are larger, ranging from 9 to 25.71 mm.</p> |
| format | Recurso digital |
| id | zenodo_https___doi_org_10_5281_zenodo_19817337 |
| institution | Zenodo |
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| publishDate | 2026 |
| publisher | Zenodo |
| record_format | zenodo |
| spellingShingle | Phengodes Illiger 1807 Uchima-Taborda, Diego Vega-Badillo, Viridiana Zaragoza-Caballero, Santiago Biodiversity Taxonomy Animalia Arthropoda Insecta Coleoptera Phengodidae Phengodes <p><b><i>Phengodes</i> Illiger, 1807</b></p><p>Type species: <i>Phengodes plumosa</i> (Olivier, 1790)</p><p><b>Diagnosis:</b> Body elongated, head exposed, at most vertex partially covered; antennae with twelve antennomeres, antennomere XII filiform, antennomeres IV–XI with filiform flabellae; antennal tubercles strongly pronounced, separated from each other by a longitudinal depression, with a similar transversal depression posterior to the tubercles, vertex striated. Maxillary palpi four-segmented and labial palpi three-segmented, maxillary palpi long and thin, with the last palpomere similar in thickness and length to the penultimate, labial palpiger usually as long as first labial palpomere, galea expanded or not, mandibles falcate. Single tentorial fossa present. Pronotum ranging from wider than long to wide as long, with lateral expansions; posterior border discontinuous, mesepimeron concave. Tarsi without ventral combs and tarsal claws falcate without teeth. Abdominal segments without a visible luminous organ. Aedeagus with median lobe apically capitated and paramere bearing apical teeth.</p><p><b>Morphology</b></p><p>Body length 9–25.71; maximum body width at shoulder height 1.52–5.57. Individuals vary in color, ranging from yellow, orange, brown and black, usually species with stable coloration patterns (Fig 3–13).</p><p><b>Head:</b> Head wider than long, usually narrower than or equal to pronotum, vertex chagrined and partially covered by pronotum (Fig 14–20). Eye finely faceted, in lateral view higher than long, in dorsal and ventral views eye width narrower than interocular distance. Antennal tubercles prominent, separated by a longitudinal depression, never fused. A deep transversal depression separates the antennal tubercles from the vertex. Antennae with twelve antennomeres, usually surpassing the middle of elytra. Antennomeres IV–XI with a pair of flabellae at base, these flabellae filiform and elongated, ranging from three to nine times the antennomere length. Scape widened towards the middle, then slightly thinned towards the apex, antennomere II and III shorter than scape, III usually shorter than II. Antennomere XII is usually more than 2.5 times longer than XI.</p><p>Longitudinal sulcus on the frons absent or present, punctures from incipient to strongly marked, lumen usually wider than puncture diameter. Fronto-clypeal suture straight, convex, or biconcave. Clypeus divided or fused, apically notched or entire, medial clypeal sulcus present or absent; clypeal lobes (hemispheres) usually triangular or fusiform, with long setae especially in the external half. Mandibles projected forwards, falcated, without denticles, shorter or longer than head, always overlapping; can vary between dorsoventrally flattened to rounded, widen at base or middle, narrowing towards apex, setae and punctures present usually at base. Galea reduced and glabrous (most <i>Phengodes</i> (<i>Phengodes</i>), in text abbreviated as <i>P. (Ph.)</i>) (Fig 2A–B) to expanded with abundant setae at the apex (most <i>Phengodes</i> (<i>Phengodella</i>), in text abbreviated as <i>P. (Pla.)</i>.) (Fig 2C–D). Maxillary palpi four-segmented, with segment I shorter than the following ones or equal to II; palpomere IV elongated, usually with a truncated apex. Labial palpi three-segmented, palpifer reduced, equal to or less than palpomere I, I to III usually increasing in length. One tentorial fossa and one gular suture present (Figs 14–15 B, E, H; 16 B, E, I; 17–19 B, E, H; 20B).</p><p><b>Thorax:</b> Pronotum wider than or as wide as long, usually wider at base, integument smooth and lustrous to opaque, with superficial punctures, lumen wider than puncture diameter, especially on the disc. Lateral borders with expansions, ranging from narrow to wide, with the pronotal width 6 to 33 times the expansion width. Posterior border discontinuous, with a complete or incomplete carina along the discontinuity; posterior corners acute to right angled, with form rounded to sharp. Pronotal disc transverse, with or without a longitudinal sulcus, in some cases reduced to an isolated depression (Fig 14–15A, D, G; 16A, D, G, H; 17–19 A, D, G; 20A). Scutellum longer than wide, feebly bilobed to rounded. Mesepimeron concave (Fig 1B). Elytra dehiscent, usually constricted in the middle and expanded at apex, longer than pronotum, 1.5 to 3.75 times longer than wide; elytral disc surface chagrined, covered by setae and punctures, these denser near the apex. Hind wings venation with anal and W cell closed, radial cell, r3 and r4 could be present or not. Tibial apex with a crown of spines, tarsomeres I and II similar, III elongated, IV shorter than III and V, V longer than the preceding ones. Tarsal claws falciform, without teeth, finely covered with short hairs at the base, arolium and pulvilli present.</p><p><b>Abdomen:</b> Abdominal segments slightly expanded, covered with minute yellow hairs; posterior border of tergite VIII rounded (Fig 21A) or bilobed (Fig 21G), tergite IX covered by VIII, and X subsquared to rounded (Fig 21D, H, L); posterior border of ventrite VII concave, straight, or undulated, with (Fig 21E, 22 G, O) or without (Fig 21I, M; 22C, K) a medial projection; VIII concave to emarginate. This projection could be sunken below the level of the posterior border. Aedeagus with the flagellum sclerotized, symmetric to slightly asymmetric; median lobe capitated, 1 to 1.7 times longer than parameres; parameres longer than wide, each paramere apex with two to three pronounced teeth, internal border of the paramere with or without a sinuate internal border, flagellum 1.5 to 6 times the aedeagus length (Fig 26–28).</p><p><b>Females and immatures</b>: <i>Phengodes</i> females and immatures are poorly studied. Females are larviform and such as juveniles are soft bodied organisms without expanded segments. They are prognathous, with falcate, channeled mandibles used to inject digestive fluids into their prey. Each body segment bears a pair of bioluminescent organs, one on each side, the light produced has been reported as green (Zaragoza-Caballero & Pérez-Hernández 2014).</p><p><b>Biology:</b> <i>Phengodes</i> species are nocturnal, easily attracted to light and remain inactive during the day. Females can be found in holes within dry wood, underneath rocks, and other dark niches, including under cow dung in disturbed environments (Sánchez-Echeverría <i>et al.</i> 2014). <i>Phengodes</i> species are active predators, mainly of Diplopoda. Laboratory assays on <i>Floridobolus penneri</i> Causey, 1957 (Eisner <i>et al.</i> 1998), and field observations with <i>Rhysodesmus byersi</i> Loomis, 1966 (Sánchez-Echeverría <i>et al.</i> 2014), show that <i>Phengodes</i> inoculates digestive substances to liquefy the prey’s internal tissues, anesthetize it, and inhibit quinone release. Miller (1997) indicated that <i>Phengodes</i> predation on millipedes may be non-specific, but further studies are needed regarding feeding habits. Interbreeding phenomena were reported by Barber (1914), resulting in inviable offspring, which he maintained alive for up to 15 months in confinement.</p><p><b>Remarks:</b> <i>Phengodes</i> is similar to <i>Zarhipis</i> LeConte 1881, both can be differentiated because in <i>Phengodes</i> the antennal tubercles are conspicuous, with a deep depression posterior to them, whereas in <i>Zarhipis</i>, antennal tubercles are incipient and the depressions feebly pronounced or absent. Elytra in <i>Phengodes</i> are usually shorter, ranging from 2.17–3.9 times as long as wide, constricted in the middle, and highly dehiscent, while in <i>Zarhipis</i> the elytra are longer, generally 3.5-5.4 times as long as wide, not constricted in the middle, instead subparallel to slightly dehiscent. In <i>Zarhipis</i> the frons is generally anteriorly strongly declinate (near to vertical) to transversally concave, while in <i>Phengodes</i> it is weakly declinate, and never concave, at most with a longitudinal sulcus. Lastly, in <i>Zarhipis,</i> ventrite VII always presents a long medial projection, whereas this projection can be absent in <i>Phengodes</i>.</p><p>Another genus similar to <i>Phengodes</i> is <i>Pseudophengodes</i> Pic 1930. However, the latter presents bulbous and strongly developed antennal tubercles that are closely near between them, a transversal sulcus posterior to antennal tubercles that is not strongly developed, and a conspicuous bioluminescent organ in the abdomen, which is absent in <i>Phengodes</i>. As a final remark, the remnant genus of Phengodinae <i>Microphengodes</i> Wittmer, 1976 differs from <i>Phengodes</i> in the characteristics mentioned for <i>Pseudophengodes,</i> except for the bioluminescent organ, which is also absent in <i>Microphengodes</i>. <i>Microphengodes</i> are generally small individuals, ranging between 4 to 7 mm while <i>Phengodes</i> specimens are larger, ranging from 9 to 25.71 mm.</p> |
| title | Phengodes Illiger 1807 |
| topic | Biodiversity Taxonomy Animalia Arthropoda Insecta Coleoptera Phengodidae Phengodes |
| url | https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.19817337 |